2018年10月3日 星期三

魚類的墳場—在海底綿延數百公里的 海洋死區(Dead Zone) 10-04-2018



魚類的墳場—在海底綿延數百公里的

海洋死區(Dead Zone)

1.  何謂海洋死區(Dead Zone)—海洋中含氧量低於兩毫克/公升(2mg/liter)的海域,因為在含氧量這麼微量的海水中,幾乎沒有任何的生物可以存活。

2.  推而廣之,海洋死區具有大量藍綠藻、雙鞭毛藻留下的神經毒素(Neurotoxins),結果不需要依賴水裡氧氣存活的鯨豚類,如不小心游經海洋死區也會中毒死亡!

3.  更別說,海鳥如果誤食海洋死區窒息的魚類,也往往因為魚體內的神經毒素而升天!


01. 墨西哥灣海洋死區(dead zone)的形成:

1 密西西比河將美國中西部地區農田殘餘的化學肥料(富含氮和磷)、汙水中的

   氮和磷沖刷到墨西哥灣

2 沿海的海水優養化,海藻及植物性浮游生物過度增生

3 海藻及植物性浮游生物死亡後沉至海底,海底的細菌分解牠們,幾乎耗掉海

   水所有的氧氣

4 魚蟹逃離此含氧量低的水域

5 無法逃離的生物因缺氧而窒息死亡。海洋死區形成。


4.  20世紀之前,全球的海洋中從未發現過任何一塊無氧或低氧的「死區」。第一次發現海洋死區是1910年,在隨後的100多年時間內,2008年的報告中,全球海洋死區的數量已有408個,2018年初美國〈科學〉期刊上的報導,全球海洋死區的數目最少五百個。面積也增加為數百萬平方公里。


02. 美國路易士安納州沿海的海洋死區,從1985年~2014年的變化。

光是路易士安納州(Louisiana state)沿岸的海洋死區,就有8,000多平方公里!


5.  地球上海洋的總面積約為3.60億平方公里,而現今海洋死區的面積已占到全球海洋總面積的~1%。海洋死區的面積逐年擴大,影響的不只是魚類等海產數量的逐漸減少,狀況繼續嚴重下去,甚至可能導致海洋生物的大滅絕發生!


03. 海洋死區(dead zone)的定義是海水中的含氧量低於2 mg/1000 ml海水(圖中深紅色區域)。在這樣的含氧量之下,沒有生物可以存活。

此圖為墨西哥灣的海洋死區。


6.  因為農民大量使用化學肥料,現今由農田沖刷流入密西西比河,再流入墨西哥灣「氮」的量比1950年代多了3倍;「磷」的量多了2倍。由此可以想見沿海海水優養化的嚴重性!


04. 因為游經路易士安納州沿海的海洋死區,而窒息死亡的魚群。

圖片來源:http://www.contextsustainability.com/oceans-suffocating-as-dead-zone-the-size-of-scotland-is-found-in-the-arabian-sea/



Why so many fish are dying in the Gulf of Mexico
(為何那麼多的魚死於墨西哥灣?)
本短片主要探討工業化的農業,施加化學肥料給作物已經成為必然!
多餘的化肥經雨水沖刷至密西西比河,再到墨西哥灣形成海洋死區,這樣的因果關係能否改變?


7.  又因為農民們都喜歡種植短期可以收成的作物,例如玉米(平均3個月收成),大豆(平均5個月收成)。而這些作物的保土性較小麥差,結果富含營養的表土(topsoil)也大量被沖刷至河海中,更增加了沿海地區的養分。

8.  但是海洋死區的形成,不能把帳全部算到農民濫用化學肥料身上。例如波羅地海的漁民濫捕鱈魚,使得鱈魚的獵物—魚數量大增,魚又吃掉大量的動物性浮游生物,結果藍綠藻、雙鞭毛藻…植物性浮游生物大量增生而形成藻華、紅潮,最後一樣是形成海洋死區。






05. 波羅地海的漁民過度捕捉鱈魚,使得鱈魚的獵物(右圖)以及鯖魚(左圖)數量大增,根據食物鏈的概念,被魚和鯖魚捕食的動物性浮游生物數量銳減→被動物性浮游生物捕食的植物性浮游生物數量爆增,引起藻華、紅潮。


9.  海洋死區(dead zone)的問題並不是無法可想的,黑海就是個最好的例子。黑海曾經有過全球最大的海洋死區,但是在19012001蘇聯政權瓦解之後的十年間完全消失!

a.  原因是蘇聯瓦解之後,農民負擔不起無補貼的化學肥料錢,於是農民恢復以天然肥料施作農田。

b.  又因為最大的海洋死區存在,使得黑海的魚類蕩然無存!

c.  結果不施作化學肥料、不過度的捕魚,黑海的dead zone就漸漸消失了!魚群又回到黑海。

d.  已向敘述是一個真實的事件,不過令我個人會做一些想像:等到那天,黑海周圍的農夫又開始大量使用化學肥料,漁民又開始過度的捕撈魚蝦,最大的海洋死區(dead zone),在黑海出現的歷史會不會重演?


06. 現在的波羅的海(Baltic sea)遭受跟墨西哥灣、黑海一樣的情況,藻華的情形非常嚴重,導致波羅的海出現了全球最大的海洋死區!




The "dead zone" of the Gulf of Mexico | Nancy Rabalais
(墨西哥灣的海洋死區|南希 拉巴萊斯—美國海洋生態學家)
雖然此TED短片長達12分鐘,但誠摯的希望,網友們有時間上YOUTUBE網站觀看!(因為YOUTUBE網站有中文(台灣)的翻譯),然後請大家想想:我們能為這病重的地球母親做些甚麼?




海洋死區(dead zone)形成的原因:

1.  海藻氾濫生長海藻生長速度很快(形成藍綠藻的藻華(bloom)、雙鞭毛藻的紅潮(red tide)),然而海藻死亡率也很高,死亡後沉入海底腐敗,成為海底諸多細菌的食物來源。

a.  細菌在分解海藻的過程會消耗大量的氧氣。

b.  當海藻生長過程中產生釋放的氧氣量,小於海底細菌分解海藻耗費的氧氣量,周邊海水中的氧氣就大量的被消耗,而形成無氧或低氧的「海洋死區」。

c.  海藻之所以會氾濫生長是因為人為活動的結果。人類生活中將大量的工廠廢水、清潔劑等污水排放至海洋。而廢水、污水中富含海藻生長所需的各種營養成分如氮、磷等。

d.  農田施作殘留的化學肥料、沖刷至河海表土的養分、廢水、污水中的有機物質、動物糞便。這些成分也都會導致海藻的氾濫生長。

藍綠藻(cyanobacteria)、雙鞭毛藻(dinoflagellates)、矽藻(diatoms)等均屬於植物性浮游生物(phytoplankton)
其中因為藍綠藻形成的藻華|(bloom);雙鞭毛藻形成的紅潮(red tide)會產生神經毒素(Neurotoxins),導致魚蝦等海產死亡,所以特別引人注意!


07. 60種的雙鞭毛藻大量增生會引起紅潮,其中幾種因含有神經毒素(例如蛤蚌毒素(Saxitoxin),是最毒也是研究得最清楚的雙鞭毛藻毒素),會導致魚蝦貝殼等因為鈉通道被阻斷,無法產生動作電位而大量死亡!
蛤蚌毒素(Saxitoxin)Voltage-gated sodium channel blocker

2.  全球暖化海水的溶氧量與海水溫度成反比,也就是說海水溫度越高,溶解其中的氧氣量就越少!

a.  而地球之所以會變暖,無疑的是人類過度排放含碳化合物的結果。

b.  海洋死區數目的成長與工業經濟的發展密切相關,工業越發達的地區,石化汙染也就越為嚴重。間接的導致全球溫度的升高!

c.  海洋氧氣減少,還可能加劇氣候暖化。在低氧環境生存的海洋微生物會產生大量N2O,而這種體產生溫室效應的強度為CO2300倍。

3.  海水酸化人類在過去100多年的時間,大量使用石化燃料,排放大量的二氧化碳,產生溫室效應,加速全球氣候變暖。

a.  海水可吸收大氣層中過多的二氧化碳,可是當其吸收能力達到飽和之後,就無法維持生態系碳的平衡,而使海水中的CO2H2O結合形成碳酸(H2CO3)→海水中的碳酸越多→海水酸化的程度越嚴重!

b.  海洋死區(dead zone)的持續擴大是全球氣候變暖、海水酸化及陸源污染物三者相互作用的結果。

c.  三者之間互相效應,將海洋生態環境推向幾乎不可逆的惡性循環。

2018105日的美國〈科學〉期刊上,有一篇評論性的論文(Review article)
Declining oxygen in the global ocean and coastal waters
(全球海洋以及沿海下降中的含氧量)
1.     Denise Breitburg1,*,總共22位著者
Science  05 Jan 2018:
Vol. 359, Issue 6371, eaam7240
DOI: 10.1126/science.aam7240

1.  這項研究,是由聯合國教科文組織政府間海洋學委員會(the United Nation’s Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission.)2016年成立的國際工作小組the Global Ocean Oxygen Network進行。是第一份詳盡的回顧評論論文,探討全球各地海洋的含氧量減少及海洋死區對海洋生態系的衝擊影響。

2.  領導研究的是,美國史密森環境研究中心的海洋生態學家丹妮絲·布雷德堡博士(the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Denise Breitburg)她說:「海洋的整體含氧量在持續下降,自1950年以來已經減少了2%,相當於770億公噸的量。地球史上的重大滅絕事件,都與氣候變暖和海洋缺氧有關。按目前趨勢,我們正朝這個方向走去。」


08. 20180105日出刊的〈科學〉期刊,評論性論文的一張圖,圖上紅點是海水含氧量少於2mg/1000ml的海洋死區(dead zone)

海洋死區大多數存在於溫帶海域。


3.  報告又指出:海洋是全球5億多人的糧食來源,並為3.5億人提供就業機會。海水如缺乏氧氣,會影響海洋生物的生長和繁殖,並使牠們更容易罹患疾病。

4.  布雷特堡也指出:「海洋死區,這是我們可以解決的問題。」例如,在當地改善了農業作業與污水處理方式後,美國切薩皮克灣(Chesapeake Bay)與英國泰晤士河(the Thames river)的氧氣量已有所增加,而沿海的海洋死區也逐漸消失中。

5.  切薩皮克灣(Chesapeake Bay),是美國面積最大的河口灣,為馬里蘭州和維吉尼亞州三面環繞,僅南部與大西洋連通。其名來自阿爾岡金印第安語,意為「大貝殼灣」。

本人不是海洋生態的專家,只是從人性的角度去思考,覺得要減低海洋死區的數目,是個非常非常艱巨的挑戰!因為人類如果不是那麼自私,海洋中的魚蝦類也就不會濫捕到只剩小魚小蝦!2018年初的鰻魚苗汛期,中日韓三國的捕撈量,竟然只有往年平均捕撈量的10%


09. 因為人類的濫捕,導致海洋中的魚蝦蟹等海洋生物數量越來越少,體積越來越小。如今專家估計海洋中的大型魚類的數目,剩下不到以往的10%!




Ocean ‘dead zones’ exist — and there are more of them than we thought   (海洋死區確實存在—而且數目比我們想像的還要多)
海洋生態學家研究海洋死區已經幾十年,最近認為在熱帶海洋可能有十倍之多的海洋死區存在!之前認為海洋死區主要存在於溫帶海洋,2011年在加勒比海發現一個海洋死區,導致深海的珊瑚、海棉、海膽都死亡,科學家們推測海洋死區可能廣泛地存在於熱帶海域!




Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone | A Short Documentary
(墨西哥灣的海洋死區|一個簡潔的紀錄)
簡潔的說明墨西哥灣的海洋死區是如何形成、建議如何避免它的擴大。



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